Levels of Processing – The Science Behind Memory

Why are Mind Maps memorable? Why do you often forget what you read but recall better if you explain something to a friend? This is explained by a simple model in psychology called ‘Levels of Processing’. In this post I discuss the model and what practical relevance it has to learning, memory and Mind Maps.

It was originally proposed in a 1972 paper by Fergus I. M. Craik And Robert S. Lockhart from The University of Toronto (“Levels of Processing: A Framework for Memory Research” - Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 11, 671-684). The basic premise of ‘The Levels of Processing’ model is that the way information is encoded affects how well it is remembered. The more processing the brain does when memorising, the easier the information is to recall.

Shallow processing

If you only do minimal processing memories are fleeting and fragile. This can be what is known as ‘structural processing’ when you encode appearance, or ‘phonemic processing’ where you consider sounds.

Back in the 1950s and 60s, before the photocopier and personal computer, pools of typists were needed by large companies to produce documents from handwritten manuscripts, re-type documents that had been edited, type documents from audio recordings, or to type copies of documents. It was seen as a steady, though monotonous, job for generations of women.

In a strict and disciplined environment, dozens of secretaries tapped out endless copies - Monday to Friday from nine to five. As Dolly Parton put it:

“Workin' 9 to 5, what a way to make a livin'

Barely gettin' by, it's all takin' and no givin'

They just use your mind and they never give you credit

It's enough to drive you crazy if you let it”

Thankfully those days are gone, but what’s this got to do with memory? The interesting thing is that despite typing a perfect copy of the same document multiple times, at the end of the day a secretary would have virtually no memory of any of the content. This is because very little processing had gone on. It was automatic eye to hand, or in the case of audio typing, ear to hand.

Shallow processing only involves ‘maintenance rehearsal’ (repetition to help us hold something in ‘Short Term Memory’).

The same thing is true in studying. Blindly copying notes from textbooks without conscious thought is largely a waste of time. Sadly, for many students this is their only study strategy.

Tony Buzan used to talk a lot about right and wrong formulae. If you have a wrong formula which you believed to be true and put energy into it, you can very successfully self-sabotage. For example, if you find yourself in quicksand and believe, incorrectly, that you can free yourself by struggling – the more you struggle the quicker you’ll sink. If you are a physically strong athlete and you put all your energy and stamina into struggling, you’ll sink like a stone. The correct formula is to stay as still as possible and call for help. Someone can then throw you a rope and pull you free.

If you believe the wrong formula that copying from a book making notes of notes is the Best way to study, then the harder you work, the more you will fail. I’m sure you’ve heard the saying “practise makes perfect”. This is only true if you if have the right formula.

Deep processing

Deep processing involves what is known as ‘elaboration rehearsal’ which involves a more meaningful analysis of information (e.g. using images, thinking, associations, etc.) and leads to better recall.

If you ask questions before Reading or Studying this activates a complex bundle of nerves in the brain called the ‘Reticula Activating System’ (RAS). The RAS is responsible for regulating wakefulness and sleep transitions, our ability to focus and our fight-or-flight response. Most importantly, it controls what we perceive in our consciousness. It is the “gatekeeper of information”. If you have a question in mind, anything relevant to that takes on greater significance. The RAS therefore brings this to your attention. For example, imagine you are thinking of buying a specific car. You will suddenly notice that many more people seem to be driving that make and model. This isn’t the case. It is just that before you were interested in this, your brain didn’t alert you to all the instances that you saw. They were just filtered out.

With questions in mind you notice relevant information and think about the answer. This leads to deeper processing than reading alone and hence stores the information more efficiently.

One of the main reasons why Mind Maps work so well as a memory technique is they involve a lot of deep processing. Selecting appropriate keywords requires analysis and thought. Representing concepts with images is another processing intensive task. The categorisation, hierarchical layout and radiant structure of a Mind Map naturally organises information, thereby making associations and connections. It is the perfect formula. This also why the act or creating a Mind Map, with its associated processing, is much more effective than using a Mind Map created by someone else.

Another instance involving deep processing is when you explain something to someone else. Talking about a subject requires you to articulate the information in your own words. This has the benefit of clarifying understanding as well as cementing memory. Have you ever had the experience of asking a friend for advice but by the time you have explained the problem you’ve already seen the solution yourself?

Memory techniques such as “The Method of Loci”, used by all the competitors in the World Memory Championships, is another example of deep processing. They use their imagination to encode information into images and then create structure by placing along a well-known route or Journey. This has the additional benefit of transforming semantic data (i.e. facts, words, numbers, etc.) into episodic memories (imagined experiences) which the brain naturally stores with little conscious effort.

The deepest level of processing occurs when teaching. You must fully understand a topic in-depth to be able to explain clearly, answer questions and communicate effectively. The best learning comes from teaching. With this in mind, Dr Marian Diamond, Professor of Neuroanatomy at the University of California, Berkeley said, “Each One Teach One!” She suggested that each student encounters new information, learns it and then teaches it to other students. This actually is an African proverb that originated in the United States during slavery when Africans were denied education. Teaching each other was a way of spreading knowledge for the betterment of your community.

If you Mind Map, talk, use the method of loci, teach or better still use a combination of these, more information will be remembered (and recalled) and better exam results will be guaranteed. What’s more you’ll avoid the counter-productive drudgery of copying which is, “enough to drive you crazy if you let it”!